Today’s post is the latest in a series on research findings that could be useful to teachers.
Reading Motivation
Julia B. Lindsey is a foundational literacy expert and the author of the Scholastic title, Reading Above the Fray: Reliable, Research-based Routines for Developing Decoding Skills:
Lately, I’ve noticed that many conversations about children’s foundational reading skills are disconnected from conversations about children’s motivation to read. When foundational skills and reading are mentioned together, there seem to be two very different positions: Either, there’s a concern that motivation will get in the way of teaching skills, or a concern that focusing on skills will harm children’s motivation.
The simple fact is that these shouldn’t be either-or conversations, and many of us worry about both foundational skills and long-term reading motivation. So, what should educators focus on the most in the early years? Just like many areas of reading instruction, we can look to the research to understand more about the relationship between foundational skills and reading motivation.
A recent meta-analysis of motivation and reading achievement found that, on average across over 132 studies, early reading was a stronger predictor of later motivation than early motivation was of later reading (Toste et al., 2020). In other words, children’s skill in reading is likely to help drive their motivation over time, but their motivation may not drive their growth in skill to the same level over time. Highly motivated young readers need knowledge and skills, not only motivation, to drive their continued growth in reading.
This idea has recently been confirmed and extended. Just last year, researchers published a study investigating the literacy skills over time of several thousand twins (van Bergen et al., 2022). Among other findings, researchers found that early literacy skills impacted later literacy enjoyment, but early enjoyment did not impact skill. Strong, early skills are likely to lead to motivation and enjoyment over time. But, motivation without support to develop children’s skills is unlikely to lead to long-term skill or enjoyment.
How can we navigate conversations about foundational skills and reading motivation? We can acknowledge these critical research findings that tell us supporting young readers in acquiring excellent skills is likely a powerful way to support their long-term motivation. Though we can certainly continue to address children’s motivation in other research-based ways throughout their reading lives, it is critical to know: Skills are not a motivation killer; they are a motivation driver!
Teaching ELLs
Irina McGrath, Ph.D., is an assistant principal at Newcomer Academy in the Jefferson County district in Kentucky and the president of KYTESOL. She is also an adjunct professor at the University of Louisville, Indiana University Southeast, and Bellarmine University. She is a co-creator of the ELL2.0 site that offers free resources for teachers of English learners:
The topic of retaining new learning in a second language deserves greater attention than it has received so far. Retention refers to one’s ability to remember learning over time and recall it when necessary, which can be difficult. Humans tend to forget information easily.
German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus discovered in the 1880s that information is quickly forgotten without any reinforcement or connections to prior knowledge. In just one hour, people can forget about 56 percent of the information, approximately 66 percent after one day, and as much as 75 percent after six days. Various factors influence these percentages, including one’s prior knowledge of the topic, the difficulty of the material, the initial degree of learning, and the learning strategies used.
The learning process in a second language can be a challenging task, as students not only have to comprehend new concepts and ideas but also do so in a non-native language, which adds an additional layer of difficulty to retaining information.
Fortunately, researchers are making progress in identifying ways to support English learners in retaining and recalling information in their second or third language. An increasing number of studies are now focusing on specific strategies to enhance retention among ELs. One such effective strategy is the use of mnemonic devices, which have been found to improve ELs’ vocabulary retention by an average of 9 percent (Hill, 2022).
A 2021 study by Karatas, Özemir, and Ullman demonstrated that when students studied vocabulary words in their second language and utilized memory-enhancement techniques like spacing and retrieval practice, they experienced significant improvements in both learning and retention of the new vocabulary words.
Spacing allows learners to study across multiple sessions instead of cramming information into a single session, facilitating continuous built-in review and reducing the risk of learning burnout. On the other hand, retrieval practice involves active recall of information rather than passive engagement, such as quietly reviewing or rereading learned materials.
Recognizing the power of research-based strategies that promote retention of new learning in English learners is key to ensuring that valuable instructional time is not wasted and information does not fade away into the depths of forgetfulness.
Supporting Student Home Languages
Stephanie Dewing, Ph.D., is an associate professor of clinical education and the chair of the bilingual authorization program at the University of Southern California’s Rossier School of Education. A former classroom teacher in Ecuador and the United States, Stephanie specializes in language and literacy development and dual-language instruction, with an emphasis on newcomers:
Did you know that multilingualism can delay the onset of Alzheimers and dementia by up to five years?! This is just one of the many benefits associated with having a bilingual or multilingual brain. As a language teacher, I often get asked by other educators and multilingual families if it is best to use English only at home and in school so students do not get “confused” between the different languages. Thanks to decades of research, we more confidently know the answer to this question: no. It’s best to maintain the home language(s)! The brain is an amazing organ that, over time, will figure out which language is most appropriate to use with which person and in which context. ¿Increíble, no?
Several studies have found that the development of the first language, or L1, is beneficial to the development of English and other subsequent languages. For example, Umanksky and Reardon (2014) did a longitudinal study over 12 years that looked at the reclassification patterns of Latino English learners. Reclassification is when students who are identified as English learners demonstrate proficiency in English based on state exams and other bodies of evidence. What they found was that those who were enrolled in dual-language programs tended to reclassify a bit slower at the elementary level, but by the end of high school, they had a higher likelihood of becoming proficient in English and reclassifying (Umansky & Reardon, 2014).
The benefits of focusing on L1 acquisition in the early grades was undeniable. Riches and Genesee (2006) also argued for the importance of early literacy experiences and found through their research that those who develop literacy in their first language(s) develop skills that transfer to literacy development in English (or other additional languages). In fact, English learners who had developed literacy in their L1 were found to progress more quickly and successfully in English literacy development than those who had no prior L1 literacy.
One study even found that L1 reading abilities was the best predictor of L2, or second language, reading achievement in later grades (Riches & Genesee, 2006). Having bilingual or multilingual repertoires from which to draw is an asset, which means that whenever the opportunity presents itself, we should encourage families to maintain their home languages and engage in literacy-based activities in those languages.
Knowing which resources are available, such as print resources in different languages at local libraries, multilingual apps or websites, audiobooks in other languages, etc., can empower educators and families to reach this goal.
Finally, it is important to note the role that time plays in these studies. Language development takes time, and our patience and support is essential. When we give this incredible process the time, attention, and recognition it deserves (and start early!), we are not only setting our multilingual learners up for greater success, but we are helping to shape a more global, multilingual world, which is something to celebrate!
Thanks to Julia, Irina, and Stephanie for contributing their thoughts!
Today’s post answered this question:
What are one to three research findings that you think teachers should know about but that you also think that many of them do not?
Part One in this series featured responses from Ron Berger, Wendi Pillars, and Marina Rodriguez.
In Part Two, Erica Silva, Min Oh, and Marilyn Chu contributed their answers.
Consider contributing a question to be answered in a future post. You can send one to me at lferlazzo@epe.org. When you send it in, let me know if I can use your real name if it’s selected or if you’d prefer remaining anonymous and have a pseudonym in mind.
You can also contact me on Twitter at @Larryferlazzo.
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